Himly, Erorterung der Gall'schen Lehre (Halle, 1806); Thomas I. M.

Forster, “Sketch of the New Anatomy and Physiology of the Brain,” in Pamphleteer (1815, vol. v., pt. ix, No. 10, reprinted with additions, 1817); Spurzheim, The Physzognomzcal System of Gall and Spurzhezm (London, 1815), Phrenology, or the Doctrine of the Mimi (1825), and The Anatomy of the Human Bram (1826); Gordon, Observations on the Structure of the Brain, comprising an estimate of the Claims of Gall and Spurzhezm, &c. (1817); Three Familiar Lectures on Craniologzcal Phystognomy, anonymous and satirical (London, Wilson, 1816); G. Combe, Essays on Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1819), Elements of Phrenology (1824), System of Phrenology (1825), Constitution of Man (1827), Lectures on Phrenology by Boardman (1839), and Outlznes of Phrenolog (1847); Dewhurst, Guide to Human and Comparative Phrenology €London, 1831); Otto, Phroenologzen eller Galls og Spurshezms Hjwrne- og Organlaere (Copenhagen, 1825); Broussais, Cours de phrénologze (Paris, 1836); Vimont, Trazté de Phrénologte humazne et comparee (1836); Noe, Grundzuge der Phrenologte (Leipzig, 1836 and 1856), and Die materielle Grundlage des Seelenlebens (Leipzig, 1874); Macnish, Introduction to Phrenology (Glasgow, 1836); Capen, Phrenologzcal Library (Boston, 1836), Ferrarese, Memorie risguardanti la dottrina frenologica (1836–1838); Watson, Statistics of Phrenology (1836); Azais, Trazté de la phrénologze (Paris, 1839), Sidney Smith, Principles of Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1838); Joshua T. Smith, Synopsis of Phrenologyi Forichon, Le Malérta zsme et la phrenologze combattu (Paris, 1840); K. G. Carus, Grundzuge einer neuen und wtssenschaftltch begrundeten Kranzoskopze (Stuttgart, 1841), and Atlas der Krantoskopze (1863); Castle, Die Phrenologze (Stuttgart, 1845); Struve, Geschichte er Phrenologze (Heidelberg,1843); Id]iez, Cours de phrénologze (Paris,1847); Flourens, Exramen de la phrénologze (Paris, 1842), De la Phrénologze (1863); Serrurier, Phrénologte morale (Paris, 1840); Mariano Cubi i Solar, Legons de phrenologte (Paris, 1857); Morgan, Phrenology; Donovan, Phrenology, Struve and Hirschfeld, Zeztschrzft fur Phrenologze (Heidelberg, 1843-184511 Phrenologzcal Journal (20 vols., 1823-1847); Lelut, Qu'est ce que la phrénologze? (1836), and Rejet de lorgauologze phrénologzque (1843); Scheve, Katechtsmus der Phrenologze (Leipzig, 1896), Tupper, Enquiry mto Dr Gall's System (1819); Wayte, Antzphrenology (1829); Stone, Observations on the Phrenologzcal Development of Murderers (Edinburgh, 1829); Epps, Horae Phrenologicae (1829); Crock, Compendium ol); Phrenology (1878); Aken, Phrenological Bijou (1839); Hall, P reno-Magnet (1843); Hollander, The Mental Functtons of the Bram (1901), Sczenttjic Phrenology (1902). (A. MA.)

PHRYGIA, the name of a large country in Asia Minor, inhabited by a race which the Greeks called Φρύγες, freemen.^[1] Roughly speaking, Phrygia comprised the western part of the great central plateau of Anatolia, extending as far east as the river Halys, but its boundaries were vague,^[2] and varied so much at different periods that a sketch of its history must precede any account of the geography. According to unvarying Greek tradition the Phrygians were most closely akin to certain tribes of Macedonia and Thrace, and their near relationship to the Hellenic stock is proved by all that is known of their language and art, and is accepted by almost every modern authority. The country named Phrygia in the better known period of history lies inland, separated from the sea by Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Mysia and Lydia. Yet we hear of a Phrygian “thalassocracy” at the beginning of the 9th century B.C. The Troad and the district round Mt Sipylus are frequently called Phrygian, as also is the seaport Sinope; and a district on the coast between Sestus and the river Cius was regularly named Little Phrygia, names like Mygdones, Doliones and Phryges or Briges, &c., were widely current both in Asia Minor and in Europe. The inference has been generally drawn that the Phrygians belonged to a stock Widespread in the countries which lie round the Aegean Sea. There is, however, no conclusive evidence whether this stock came from the east over Armenia, or was European in origin and crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor, but modern opinion inclines decidedly to the latter view.

According to Greek tradition there existed in early time a Phrygian kingdom in the Sangarius valley, ruled by kings among whom the names Gordius and Midas were common. It was known to the ancient Greeks of Ionia and the Troad as something great and half-divine. When the goddess appeared to her favourite Anchises she represented herself as daughter of the king of Phrygia; the Phrygians were said to be the oldest people, and their language the original speech of mankind; the Phrygian kings were familiar associates of the gods, and the heroes of the land tried their skill against the gods themselves; we hear of the well-walled cities of Phrygia and of the riches of its kings. Tradition is completely corroborated by archaeological evidence. In the mountainous region on the upper waters of the Sangarius, between Kutaiah Eski Shehr and Afium (Afiom) Kara Hissar, there exist numerous monuments of great antiquity, showing a style of marked individuality, and implying a high degree of artistic skill among the people who produced them. On two of these monuments are engraved the names of “Midas the King” and of the goddess “Kybile the Mother.” Even the title “king” (ἄναξ)^[3] appears to have been borrowed by Greek from Phrygian.

It is impossible to fix a date for the beginning of the Phrygian kingdom. It appears to have arisen on the ruins of an older civilization, whose existence is revealed to us only by the few monuments which it has left. These monuments, which are found in Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia and Lycaonia, as well as in north and central Syria, point to the existence of a homogeneous civilization over those countries; they show a singularly marked style of art, and are frequently inscribed with a peculiar kind of hieroglyphics, engraved boustrophedon; and they originated probably from a great Hittite kingdom, whose kings ruled the countries from Lydia to the borders of Egypt. There can be traced in Asia Minor an ancient road-system, to which belongs the “royal road” from Sardis to the Persian capital, Susa (Herod. v. 5 5). The royal road followed a route so difficult and circuitous that it is quite unintelligible as the direct path from any centre, in Persia, Assyria or Syria to the west of Asia Minor. It can be understood only by reference to an imperial centre far in the north. The old trade-route from Cappadocia to Sinope, which had passed out of use centuries before the time of Strabo (pp. 540, 546), fixes this centre with precision. It must be far enough west to explain why trade tended to the distant Sinope,^[4] hardly accessible behind lofty and rugged mountains, and not to Amisus by the short and easy route which was used in the Graeco-Roman period. This road-system, then, points distinctly to a centre in northern Cappadocia near the Halys. Here must have stood the capital of some great empire connected with its extremities, Sardis or Ephesus on the west, Sinope on the north, the Euphrates on the east, the Cilician Gates on the south, by roads so well made as to continue in use for a long time after the centre of power had changed to Assyria, and the old road-system had become circuitous and unsuitable^[5] The precise spot on which the city stood is marked by the great ruins of Boghaz Keui, probably the ancient Pteria, of which the wide circuit, powerful walls and wonderful rock sculptures make the site indisputably the most remarkable in Asia Minor. On this site Winckler found in 1907 the records of the Hittite kings who fought against Egypt and Assyria.

The ancient road from Pteria to Sardis crossed the upper Sangarius valley, and its course may be traced by the monuments of this early period. Close to its track, on a lofty plateau which overhangs the Phrygian monument inscribed with the name of “Midas the King,” is a great city, inferior indeed to Pteria in extent, but surrounded by rock-sculptures quite as remarkable as those of the Cappadocian city. The plateau is 2 m. in circumference, and presents on all sides a perpendicular face of rock 50 to 200 ft. in height. This natural defence was crowned by a wall partly Cyclopean, partly built of large squared stones.^[6] This city was evidently the centre of the old Phrygian kingdom^{[7][8][9][10]}