and endtked or embanked lakes had come 1nt0 existence, forming altogether a vast network of more or less stagnant waters These waters are utilized as the temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water, each sy stem of reservoirs being termed a boezem (bosom or basm), and all lands watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it. The largest boezem is that of Friesland, which embraces nearly the whole provmce. It sometimes happens that a polder is not m direct contaet with the boezem to which it belongs, but first drams mto an ad acent polder, from which the water IS afterwards remox ed. In the same way, some boezems discharge first mto others, which then discharge mto the sea or rivers. This is usually the case w here there is a great difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer waters, and may be illustrated b the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte boezems in the provinces of South and North Holland respectively. In time of drought the water m the canals and boezems IS allowed to run back mto the polders, and so serve a double purpose as water-reservoirs. Boezems, |1ke polders, hawe a standard water-level which may not be exceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in the different parts of an extended boezem. The height of the boezem pezl ranges beween 1% ft. above to 1% ft. below the Amsterdam zero, though the average lm about 1 to Ig ft. below. Some boezems, again, which are less easily controlled, have a “danger water-level ” at which they refuse to recenve any more water from the surrounding polders. The Schte or Delflands boezem of South Holland is of this kmd, and such a boezem is termed beslolen or “ sequestered, ” in contradtstmction to a “ free ” boezem. A third kind of boezem is the reserve or berg-boezem, which m summer may be made dry and used for agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are better ima med than described, and even at the present da; the edences o?the struggle are far less apparent than real. Geology -Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of Maastrlcht, the upper lay ers of the chalk are exposed and followed b; Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered bi recent deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep bormgs have revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the “ Crags" of East Angha. They are divided into the Dzestlen, correspond mg m part with the English Corallme Crag, the Sealdlszen and Poederlzen corresponding with the Walton Cra, and the Amstelzen corres ondmg with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the south of Holland) the total thickness of the Phocene series is only about 200 ft, and they are covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary deposits; but towards the north the beds sink down and at the same time mcrease considerable in thickness, so that at Utrecht a deep bormg reached the top oflthe Phocene at a depth of 513 ft and at 1198 ft it had not touched the bottom. At Amsterdam the top of the Phocene lay 625 ft. below the surface, but the boring, 1098 ft deep, d1d not reach the base of the uppermost division of the Phocene, viz. the Amstelzen Eastward and westward of Amsterdam, as well as southward, the Phocene beds rise slowly to the surface, and gradually decrease in thickness. They were laid down in a broad bay which cox ered the east of England and nearly the whole of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of northern shells In the upper divisions of the Pliocene series indicates the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift contain mg Scandmavlan boulders now covers much of the country east of the Zulder lee The more modern deposits of Holland consist of alluwium, wmd blown sands and peat 1

Clzmaie *“%ltll3t€Cl in the temperate zone between 50° and 53° N. the cllmate of Holland shows a difference in the len ths of day and night extending m the north to nine hours, and there is a correspondingly wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the region of varlable wmds. On an average of fifty years the mean annual temperature was 49-8° Fahr.; the maximum, 93'9° Fahr; the mlmmum, -5-8° Fahr The mean annual barometric height is 29 9f-5 m; the mean annual moisture, 81 %; the mean annual ram all, 27 QQ m The mean annual number of days with ram is 204, with snow 19, and with thunder-storms 18. The increased rainfall from July to December (the summer and autumn rains), and the increased evaporation in sprmg and summer (5-2 in. more than the rainfall), are of importance as regards “ powdering " and draining operations The prevalence of south-west winds during mne months of the year and of north-west during three (A r1l-June) has a strong influence on the temperature and rainfall? tides, river mouths and outlets, and also, geologically, on dunes and sand drifts, and on fens and the accumulation of clay on the coast. The west w mds of course increase the moisture, and moderate both the winter cold and the summer heat, while the east winds blowing over the I

^[1] continent have an opposite influence. It cannot be said that the climate is particulari good, owmg to the changeableness of the weather, which may alter completely within a single day The heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living within doors or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an influence on the character and temperament of the inhabitants Gnly of certain districts, however, Can it be said that they are positively unhealthy; to this category belong some parts of the Holland provmees, Zeeland, and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed to the exhalations from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often burdened with sea-fogs.

Fauna.-In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter, martin and badger may be l'l1€l'lfl()II€Cl among the rarer wild animals, and the wease, ermme and pole cat among the more common. In the 18th century wolves still roamed the country m such large numbers that hunting parties were organized against them; now they are unknown Roebuck and deer are found m a wild state in Gelderland and Overysel, foxes are plentiful m the dry wooded regions on the borders of the eountry, and hares and rabbits m the dunes and other sandy stretches. Among b11ds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different kinds which are regular inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of these are migratory. The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel, magple, Jay, raven, various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden crested wren, tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here. Birds of passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of various kinds, golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, flnch and mghtlngale Storks are plentiful m summer and mtght almost be considered the most characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape. Flora.-The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four physio graphical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts Heath (Erzca letrallx) and ling (Calluna vulgaris) cover all the waste sandy reglons in the eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is monotonous. In the more damp and marsh places the bottom is covered with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches and pools eommon yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as water soldier (Slralwles alludes), great and lesser reed-mace, sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The inost common plant here is the stiff sand-reed (Arundo arenafza), called sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, Where it is much used for making mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the buck thorn (Hlppobhae rhammndes) perform a useful service in helping to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white du ne-rose (Rosa pzmpmellzfella) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (Sedum acre), field fever-wort, remdeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (Polygonatum oifcmale), and the broadleaved or marsh orchis (Orchls lalzfolla). The sea-plants wl11ch flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer the shore to sandspurry (Spergulama), or sea-poa or floating meadow grass (Glyeema marzllma), which grows up to the dikes, and affords pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (Zostera marma) is found in large patches m the northern half of the Zuider Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common. Populatlon.~The following table shows the area and populat10n in the eleven provinces of the Netherlands:-