No. I is only used for passages

in double notes and

for chiords.

ZIRKEL, FERDINAND (1838), German geologist and petrographer, was born at Bonn on the 20th of May 1838. He was educated in his native town, and graduated Ph.D. at the university in 1861. In early years he v. -a s engaged in teaching geology and mineralogy in Vienna. He became professor of geology in 1863 in the university of Lemberg, in 186S at Kiel, and in 1870 professor of mineralogy and geology in the university of Leipzig.

His numerous papers and essays include Geologische Shizze von der Weslkuste Schottlands (1871); Die Slrukliir der Variolile (1875); Microscopical Petragraphy (in Report of U.S. Geol. Exploration of 40th Par., vol. vi., 1876); Limurit aus der Vallee de Lesponne (1879); Uber den Zirkon (1880). His separate works include Lehrbuch der Petrographie (1866; 2nd ed- 1893, 1894); Die mikroskopische Bfschaffenheit der Mineralien und Genuine (1873).

ZITHER (Ger. Zither, Schlagzilher, Sireichzilher; Ital. cilhara), a name applied in modern Germany to the ancient cithara {q.v.), to the cittern (^.f .), and to an instrument which is a kind of psaltery, consisting of a shallow sound-chest with ribs having the outline of a flattened jug (termed in German Flaschcnform, bottle-shape). In the centre of the sotmd-board is a rose sound-hole, and the finger-board with frets lies along the straight side of the zither in front of the performer. The number of the

strings varies, but 36, 38 and 42 are the most usual. Over the finger-board are four or five strings known as vioUn, on which the melody is played. These five melody strings are stopped with the thumb and fingers of the left

hand and plucked with the thumb

of the right hand, which usually

has a thumb ring with plectrum.

Nos. I

and 2 are steel strings;

No.3ofbrass, and4ands of

spun

wire; the bass is

played

with the fingers

of the

right

hand, and in order to facilitate

the fingering the strings are tuned in fourths and fifths. Most of the other strings from the 6th are of gut. All the strings lie horizontally across the sound-board, being fastened in the usual manner to hitch and wrest pins. The zither is

placed on the table in front of the performer, who holds his right arm so that the wrist rests on the side of the zither parallel with the hitch pins, the thumb being over the finger-board. The foregoing remarks apply to the discant and concert zither; the elegiac or bass zither is of' similar construction but larger, and is a transposing instrument, having the same notation as the former, the real sounds being a fourth lower. These zithers are the favourite instruments of the peasants in the Swiss and Bavarian highlands,

and. are sometimes seen in the concert halls of north and western Germany. The Streickzither, or bowed zither, has a body of heartor pear-shape similar to that of. the cittern, but without the long neck of the latter.

The finger-board covers the whole of the soundboard with the exception of a few inches at the tapering end, which is finished off with a raised nut or bridge, the bow being applied in the centre of this gap. The bowed zither has little feet and is placed on a table when being played. There ."re four strings corresponding to those of the violin or viola, but the tone is nasal and glassy.

The spelling of the word with a " Z

" had already become usual

iti the early 17th century, for, although the instrurnpnt described above did not then exist. Cither was the name by which the cittern was known in Germany, and Michael Praetorius, writing in 1618, spells it with both " C"

and " Z."

ZITTAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Mandau, near its confluence with the Neisse, close to the Bohemian and Silesian frontier, 25 m. by rail S.E . of Bautzen, 48 E.S.E . of Dresden and at the junction of lines to Reichenberg (in Bohemia), Eibau and HermsdorT. Pop. (1905) 34,706. The town hall dates from 1844, and contains a beautiful hall with rich stained glass windows. Among the six Evangelical churches, the following are noticeable: that of St John, rebuilt in 1834-37, with twin spires, and the church of St Peter and St Paul, with its elegant tower, which formerly belonged to an old Franciscan monastery. The latter was restored in 1882 and part of it fitted up as an historical museum. Another wing of this building contains the municipal library of 40,000 volumes and valuable manuscripts. Zittau is well equipped with schools, including a gymnasium and a commercial school, which are both accommodated in the Johanneum, and several technical institutions. There are also a theatre, well-equipped pubUc baths and a richly endowed hospital. Zittau is one of the chief manufacturing towns of Saxony. The leading branch of industry is linen and damask weaving; but woollen stuffs, trimmings, &c., are also produced in the factories of the town, and in the surrounding weaving villages, sixty-six of which, with 113,455 (1900) inhabitants, are included in the municipal jurisdiction. The corporation owns valuable forests on the mountains of Upper Lusatia and other estates, the annual income of which is about £15,000. There are various steam-mills, iron-foundries, brick-fields and potteries near the town, and extensive deposits of hgnite. Zittau is of Wendish origin (Chytawa is' its Wendish name), and was made a town by Ottocar II. of Bohemia. It was one of the six towns of the Lusatian League (1346), at which period it belonged to Bohemia. It suffered severely in the Hussite wars and in the Thirty Years' War, and was bombarded and burnt by the Austrians in 1757 during the Seven Years' War. The musical composer Marschner (1795-1861) was born at Zittau.

See Carpzov, Analecta fastorum Zitlaviensium (Leipzig, 1716); Moschkau, Zittau und seine Umgebung (5th ed., Zittau, 1893)'; and Lamprecht, We^eiser durch Zittau und das Ziltauer Cebirge (Zittau, 1901).

ZITTEL, KARL ALFRED VON (1839-1904), German palaeontologist, was born at Bahlingen in Baden on the 25th of September 1839. He was educated at Heidelberg, Paris and Vienna. For a short period he served on the Geological Survey of Austria, and as assistant in the mineralogical museum at Vienna. In 1S63 he became teacher of geology and mineralogy in the polytechnic at Carlsruhe, and three years later he succeeded Oppel as professor of palaeontology in the university of Munich, with the charge of the state collection of fossils. In 1880 he was appointed to the geological professorship, and eventually to the directorship of the natural history museum of Munich. His earlier work comprised a monograph on the Cretaceous bivalve mollusca of Gosau (1S63-66); and an essay on the Tithonian stage (1870), regarded as equivalent to the Purbeck and Wealden formations. In 1S73-74 he accompanied the Rohlfs expedition to the Libyan desert, the primary results of which were published in Uber den gcologischen Bau der libyschen Wiistc (1880), and further details in the Palaeonlographica (18S3). Dr Zittel was distingtiished for his palaeontological researches. From 1S69 until the close of his life he was chief editor of the Palaeonlographica (founded in 1846 by W. Dunker and H. von Meyer). In 1S76 he commenced the publication of his great work, tJaJtdbuch der Palacontologie, which was completed in 1893 in five volumes, the fifth volume on palaeobotany being prepared by W. P. Schimper and A. Schenk. To make his work as trustworthy as possible Dr Zittel made special studies of each great group, commencing with the fossil sponges, on which he published a monograph (1877-79). In 1895 he issued a summary of his larger work entitled Grundziige der Palaeonlologie (ed. 2, part i, IiivertC brata, revised by Dr Zittel in 1903; the American edition of 1900 by C. R . Eastman is so revised, sometimes in opposition to Zittel's views, as to be practically an independent work). He was author of Aus der Urzcit (1S73, ed. 2, 1S75); and Die Sahara (1883). In 1899 he published Geschichle der GeoJogie und Palaeonlhgic bis Ende dcs 19 Jahrhuvderls, a monumental history of the progress of geological science (Eng. trans., Mrs Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, 1901). Dr Zittel was from 1S99 president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and in 1S94 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London. He died on the sth of January 1904.

Obituary with portrait and bibliography, by Dr F. L. Kitchin. Geol. Mag. (February 1904).-