constructed of cast iron plates or open steel-work with a view to economy. Fine examples of the former are to be found in many British colonies and elsewhere, that on Dassen Island (Cape of Good Hope), 105 ft. in height to the focal plane, being typical (fig. 25). Many openwork structures up to 200 ft. in height have been built. Recent examples are the towers erected at Cape San Thomé (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height (fig. 26), Mocha (Red Sea) in 1903, ISO ft. and Sanganeb Reef (Red Sea) 1906, 165 ft. in height to the focal plane. 3. OPTICAL APPARATUS.-Optical apparatus in lighthouses is required for one or other of three distinct purposes: (1) the concentration of the rays derived from the light source into a belt of light distributed evenly around the horizon, condensation in the vertical plane only being employed; (2) the concentration of the rays both vertically and horizontally into a pencil or cone of small angle directed

only to produce characteristics or distinctions in lights to enable them to be readily recognized by mariners, but to utilize the light rays in directions above and below the horizontal plane, and also, in the case of revolving or flashing lights, in azimuths not requiring to be illuminated for strengthening the beam in the direction of the mariner. It will be seen that the effective condensation in flashing lights is very much greater than in fixed belts, thus

enabling higher in- A

V towards the horizon and

mgqggmm caused to revolve about

lll§§ '|§ l'll!! the light source as a centre, thus producing

a flashing light; and (3)

the condensation of the

fl? light in the vertical

plane and also in the

horizontal plane in such

a manner as to concen-It

/g, trate the rays over a

27 limited azimuth only.

Apparatus falling

- "“"l'T'A'f)"“~ d th fi t

H, %37, {§ , I, f-., ,, —(un er e rs category 7, ,, , gl, "i'fl-g f'. ~.l»~'fj~)Ill1'.§ produce a fixed light, and fur then distinction

llc L RZ; can be Pfovlded 111 this “T” """"""' vi l 7 1 '""' class by mechanical " Qyl ff f “rt ' means of occultation resulting in the proi

I A:. 3.95 nH&y; ]§ ' duction of an occulting 7. or intermittent light.

4 ., ., ilpparatusdindilded in

t the secon c ass are

§ ~ / A usually employed to

j produce flashing lights,

CT but sometimes the dual

condensation is taken

W advantage of to produce

FIG 20.-American Shoal Lighthouse, 3' ixed pencil of rays F1 0rida thrown towards the

horizon for the purpose

of marking an isolated danger or the limits of a narrow channel. Such lights are best described by the French term feux de direction. Catoptric apparatus, by which dual condensation is produced, are moreover sometimes used for fixed lights, the light pencils overlapping each other in azimuth. Apparatus of the third class are employed for sector lights or those throwing a beam of light over a wider azimuth than can be conveniently covered by an apparatus of the second class, and for reinforcing the beam of light emergent from a fixed apparatus in any required direction. The above classification of apparatus depends on the resultant effect of the optical elements. Another classification divides the instruments themselves into three classes: (a) catoptric, (b) dioptric and (c) catadioptric. Catoptric apparatus are those by which the light rays are reflected only from the faces of incidence, such as silvered mirrors of plane, spherical, parabolic or other profile. Dioptric elements are those in which the light rays pass through the optical glass, suffering refraction at the incident and emergent faces (fig. 27). Catadioptric elements are combined of the two foregoing and consist of optical prisms in which the light rays suffer refraction at the incident face, total internal reflexion at a second face and again refraction on emergence at the third face (fig. 28). The object of these several forms of optical apparatus is not densities to be obtained

by the use 1 7 —— — - +30 Smof

hashing lights ti

than with fixed ap- Jil, ,, ,

paratus. = '~<=='§§§ » Ii,

Catoptric Systemr- A G . 7 o iasi é Parabolic reflectors, I ""a|é!, , consisting of small €§ § 'lli Y lflili facets of silvered |, ,, ,, , Room glass set in plaster of "Q" 5 r||=i 1 9 Paris, were first used vfsll-fé-§ -»4 about the year 1763 “I ,

in some of the Mersey D P- I f K1 h lights by Mr Hut- - 'l 'C 2"

chinson, then dock

master at Liverpool .

(fig. 29). Spherical I Start, metallic reflectors ' ['L.

were introduced in

France in 1781, V

followed by parabolic '/ff' 2

reflectors on silvered “ua ' E"=~="°=R°°"'. copper in 1790 in g

England and France,

and in Scotland in 5P, ,, ,, -nd, Q, 5 4 m, -', 7803. The earlier 7 7/ , , 2

ights were of fixed — , @» —type, a number of re- YQ, *wi

~ ee;: § *= %'. .

flectors being ar . - +2 om ranged on a frame or

stand in such a. "ff ' 5-~°'°"'manner that the , 25

pencils of emergent T:T1' E?§§ E rays overlapped and § -I '~1;;§ g iT thus illuminated the -E-T f '5i{q '  :li whole horizon con- Ei? 124

tenuously. In 1783

the first revolving § ;fj€§ ff§ E§ g;5 light was erected at "f:§ ;;.

l/larstrandinSweden. 'E§ 1.;:;.'31€;.; Similar apparatus '¢fE§ ;;. "3:§ ;' ¥§ ""0'°m were installed at Cor- § g;.§ ¢g.§ , .. -;1~';1. '*§§ :;., % '?;§ €ff' V, ,~ Z ggf douan (1790), Flam- ., :;I:§ . § . *1st borough Head (1806) »f1;2 jff'5“ 1. ~i§ i~:, * '<{:¢ El;;»'=7, 1; and at the Bell Rock lf§ 5§ j5f $53. -."' Eiiz, (1811). To produce - ., ifki; "~.{i, . 'Tii§ ; '1:'j;. revolving or flashing I; ' ' . ", '; '~ "TQ light the reflectors ji

were fixed on a re- '2, *>7 ...., ,......... .., .........., . .=i;-“l volving carriage hav- f i'l' l3l'°<fing several faces. 5" '»', 5

Three or more re- . ., ' Lgjgji. nom flecto1'§ inafa?€ were ~ “ '- '/»- '~'—Slowking4—<1~»'~7 Set Wlth their axes FIG. 21.-Rothersand Lighthouse. parallel.

A type of parabolic reflector now in use is shown in fig. 30. The sizes in general use vary from 21 in. to 24 in. diameter. These instruments are still largely used for light-vessel illumination, and a few important land lights are at the present time of catoptric type, including those at St Agnes (Scilly Islands), Cromer and St Anthony (Falmouth).

Dioplric System.-The first adaptation of dioptric lenses to lighthouses is probably due to 'l'. Rogers, who used lenses at one of the Portland lighthouses between 1786 and 1790. Subsequently lenses by the same maker were used at Howth, Waterford and the North Foreland. Count Buffon had in 1748 proposed to grind out of a solid piece of glass a lens in steps or concentric zones in order to reduce the thickness to a minimum (fig. 31). Condorcet in 1773 and Sir D. Brewster in 1811 designed built-up lenses consisting of stepped annular rings. Neither of these proposals, however, was intended to apply to lighthouse purposes. In 1822 Augustin Fresnel constructed a built-up annular lens in which the centres of curvature of the different rings receded from the axis according to their distances from the centre, so as practically to eliminate spherical aberration; the only spherical surface being the small central part or “ bull's eye ” (fig. 32). These lenses were intended for revolvin lights only.

Fresnel next produced his cylindric refract or or lens belt, consisting