The hair papilla (a, fig. I) consists of a globule of the corium or true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of blood vessels feeds and nourishes the hair. Connected with the lower part of each hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or erector pili, seen at k, fig. I; this is an involuntary muscle, and is contracted by sudden cold, heat or shock, with an accompanying tightening of the skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known as “goose flesh.” This is the outcome of the contracted muscle pulling on the base of the hair, thereby giving it a tendency to approach the vertical, and producing the simultaneous effect of making the “ hair stand on end."

The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. I) consist of long spiral like capillaries, formed from the fibres of th e connective tissue of the corium. These glands discharge sometimes directly through the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the hair-sheath. The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important and very fine membrane, termed the “ hyaline ” or “ glassy layer, " which constitutes the actual grain surface of a h1de or skin. This layer is chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or scratched during the process of tanning the colour of the underlying parts is much lighter than that of the grain surface. The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular structure; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but are gradually developed as needed from the lnterflbrillar substance, a semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre. This interfibrillar sub-55,1

$ stance consequently

1' has no Structure,

€=:~ =;:;=;§ 2~:w;§ ;;:$@, z, '-L <===:;r.~;==&f£:;: sie-.:'==»=s:'==.=—~-~~-~n====v -'=2=a¢-'=====»a=;::=e3-:rss and is prepared at m% ~es. uarr-TY

Fi €*“Y. “me 0” COW

' = ~-, g§ ;..';, ; ryggazsg Ag—nz ing into contact with E '<<' e=f:'=:r=fl)== v2l2'%%*&~ - fi t ' t f mor;, ; /awhw;, ., &;§ °mg ;E annin o orma § M ¥€£§§§§ ?  :Ei phous leather, which &'l§ $1§ t5§ ¥;, =5'iw§ 3¥§ l -=; ; J fills what would in @3;;§ :rl, '§ 5Q &§ 2=¢§ !g§ g@l' F; the absence of this

-5

1 gg, -, , », ,¢ ~ - substance be inter-Qsspg

xl .., i€.g, m§ E&g1 E55 'IE

=;;§ ., I: N,

=' '§ 3— '

~:f,

=- ~ Ui, ilu:

1: . 7 § 'f if!

r- 5, ,, ;,

==~ ' . ».¥~

E.. - ~ »

~

f, -

t, V I

€m§ 'v°° §   ' 5', "*$:fi

(nf ?:$ ' "'n,

/ 'Q

iffg P,  

fibrillar spaces. The

5 E' } T more of this matter

3; 35 111, L-5;';1; there is present the § '~ " ", iz -gegé;§ more completely will NET; its 13; the spaces be filled, § é+; -E* 'al ' E and the more water"i'; €=;;-=; lg ?' proof will be the

—:-~-F;-:i=, ~ e e r leather. An old bun, -";-“T, § ;='é?.-=:f° Q) W E" E5—R as is well known, E"';:;"i' t é. suppliesavery poor, %f§ ~; soft and spongy

Zr"'é, %.j'§ , =» °:~", ..g§ %' leather, simply beg;, - ' 7-;§ 2';Q" § ;f causeaéhilhide laclgs

'; - ~ "sg-1 inter rx ar suf

§ f' “ T;';~ § stance, which has

FIG- 1- f”§§ 'i,0Za§ fp9i€1h§ f'bl”@Z Hair papilla. ], Sebaceous glands. are, th@f?f0fC, Sefiaf-Hair bulb. k, Erector pili. ated by mterfibrrllar Hair sheath show- m, Sweat ducts.

ing epidermic na

structure.

Dermic coat of hair

sheath.

Outer root sheath.

Inner root sheath. S,

Hair cuticle.

Hair.

animals are young, and

W,

P,

R

nd p, Epidermis.

Rete Malpighi.

Horny layer.

Sweat or sudoriferous

gland.

Opening at sweat

duct.

having plenty of

spaces, which on

contact with water

absorb it with

avidity by capillary

attraction. But a

heifer hide or young

calf supplies the

most ti ht and

waterproof leather

known, because the

nourishment do not

require to draw upon and sap the interfibrillar substance with which the skin is full to overflowing. The corium obtains its food from the body by means of lymph ducts, with which it is well supplied. It is also provided with nodules of lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which increase in number as they near the flesh side, until the net skin, panniculus adiposus, or that which separates the corium from meat proper, is quite full with them.

The corium is coarse in the centre of the skin where the fibres, which are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which exist in bundles bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are loosely woven, but towards the flesh side they become more compact, and as the hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get finer and finer, and are much more tightly interwoven, until finally, next the grain itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as individual fibrils lying parallel with the grain. This layer is known as the pars papillaris. The bundles of fibre interweave one another in every conceivable direction. The fibrils are extremely minute, and are cemented together with a medium rather more soluble than themselves.

There are only two exceptions to this general structure which need be taken into account. Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven th

in e centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or sweating process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing. This loosely-woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is generally split at this part, the flesh going for chamois leather and the grain for skivers. The other notable exception is the horse hide, which has a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys, known as the crup; it is very greasy and tight in structure, and is used for making a very waterproof leather for seamen's and fishermen's boots. Pig-skin, perhaps, is rather peculiar, in the fact that the bristles penetrate almost right through the skin. Tanning Materials.—Taniiin or tannic acid is abundantly formed in a very large number of plants, and secreted in such diverse organs and members as the bark, wood, roots, leaves, seed-pods, fruit, &c. The number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor has the constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily settled. As used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the free state and combined with colouring matter and accompanied by decomposition products, 'such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (anhydrides of the tannins), respectively depending upon the series to which the tannin belongs. In whatever other points they differ, they all have the common property of being powerfully astringent, of forming insoluble compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, of being soluble in water to a greater or lesser extent, and of forming blacks (greenish or bluish) with iron. Pyrogallol tannins give a blue-black coloration or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol tannins a green-black; and whereas bromine water gives a precipitate with catechol tannins, it does not with pyrogallol tannins There are two distinctive classes of tannins, viz. catechol and pyrogallol tannins. The materials belonging to the former series are generally much darker in colour than those classified with the latter, and moreover they yield reds, phlobaphenes or tannin anhydrides, which deposit on or in the leather. Pyrogallol tannins include some of the lightest coloured and best materials known, and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them is not so harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins. They decompose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as “ bloom ”) and gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills the leather, at the same time giving weight. It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather cannot be successfully made with catechol tannins alone; pyrogallol tannins, however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results are obtained by blending the two.

The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows 1Pyfogallols. Myrobalans (Te/minalia Chebula).

Chestnut wood (Caslanea vesca).

Divi-divi (Cacsalpinia Coriaria).

Calechols.

Gambier (Uncmia Gambir).

Hemlock (Abies canadensis).

Quebracho (Quebfar/zo Calnrario).

Algarobilla (Cacralpinia brew;/olia). Su mach (Rhus Cariaria).

Oakwood (Quercus family).

Chestnut oak (Quefcus Prinus).

Calls (Quercus In/erloria).

Willow (Salix arenaria).

Mangrove or Cutch (Rhizzzphma Mangle). Mimosa or Golden Wattle (Acacia Pycurmlha). Latch (Larix Eurnpaea).

Czmaigre (Kumar llymcnosepalum).

Birch (Belula alba).

Cutch Catcchu (Acacia Caiechu).

Subsidiary.

Oakhark (Quercus Robur).-Valonia

(Quercus Aegilups).

Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian tree. There are several different qualities, the order of which is as follows, the best being placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Rajpore, Fair Coast Madras and Vingorlas. They are a very light-coloured material, containing from 27 % to 38 % of tannin; they deposit much “ bloom, ” ferment fairly rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather. Chestnut comes on the market in the form of crude and decolonized liquid extracts, containing about 27 % to 31 % of tannin, and yields a good leather of a light-brown colour. Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very similar material, but only contains 24% to 27% of tannin, and yields a slightly heavier and darker leather. Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing 40% to 45% of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be valuable but for the tendency to dangerous fermentation and development of a dark-red colouring matter.

Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing about 45% of tannin, and in general properties is similar to dividivi, but does not discolour so much upon fermentation. Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known. It is the ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28 % of tannin, and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather. It is used alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and being so valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being Pistacia leutiscus (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured catechol tannin. Other but inferior sumachs are also used. There is Venetian sumach (Rhus cotinus) and Spanish sumach (Colpoonv compress); these are used to some extent in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. R. Glabra and R. Copallina are also used in considerable quantities in America, where they are cultivated. Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the gall wasp laying eggs in the plant. They are best harvested just before the insect escapes. They contain from 50% to 00% of tannin, and are generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for tanning purposes. Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by

boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a