of 191; it supports the periodical Kantstudien (founded 1896; see BIBLIOGRAPHY, ad init.).
~ THE WR1r1Ncs or KANT
No other thinker of modern times has been throughout his work so penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science; no other has been able to hold with such firmness the balance between empirical and speculative ideas. Beyond all question much of the influence which the critical philosophy has exercised and continues to exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic feature in the training of its great author.
The early writings of Kant are almost without exception on questions of physical science. It was only by degrees that philosophical problems began to engage his attention, and that the main rtion of his literary activity was turned towards them. The f iii lowing are the most important of the works which bear directly on physical science.
1. Gedanken von der wahren Schdtzung der lebendigen Krdfte (1747); an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesians and Leibnitzians regarding the expression for the amount of a force. According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicists have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which are vaguely included under the expression amount of force, and consequently have been able to show in what each party was correct and in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious explanations and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the Leibnitzians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes of expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted. 2. Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change since the Earliest Times (I7%; ed. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900, Kant's Cosmogony; cf. Lord elvin in The Age of the Earth, 1897, p. 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay(1865) and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising the waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth. 3. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himrnels, published anonymously in 1755 (4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebert, 1890). In this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian conception of the solar system, extends his consideration to the entire sidereal system, points out how the whole may be mechanically regarded, and throws out the important speculation which has since received the title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such e.g. as the regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as portion of the general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors, among others Thomas Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole contains a wonderfully acute anticipation of much that was afterwards carried out by Herschel and Laplace. The by othesis of the original nebular. condition of the system, with tfie consequent explanation of the great phenomena of planetary formations and movements of the satellites and rings, is unquestionably to be assigned to Kant. (On this question see discussion in W. Hastie's Kant's Cosmogony, as above.)
4. Meditationum guarundam de igne succinct delineation (1755): an inaugural dissertation, containing little beyond the notion that bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly diffused, elastic and subtle matter (ether) which is the underlying substance of heat and light. Both heat and light are regarded as vibrations of this diffused ether.
5. On the Causes of Earthquakes (1755); Description of the Earthquake of 1755 (1756); Consideration of some Recently Experienced Earthquakes (1756).
6. Explanatory Remarks on the Theory of the Winds (1756). In this brief tract, Kant, apparently in entire ignorance of the explanation given in 1735 by Hadley, points out how the varying velocity of rotation of the successive zones of the earth's surface furnishes a key to the phenomena of periodic winds. His theory is in almost entire agreement with that now received. See the parallel statements from Kant's tract and D0ve's essay on the influence of the rotation of the earth on the flow of its atmosphere (1835), given in Z6llner's work, Ueber die Natur der Corneten, pp. 477-482. 7. On the Different Races of Men (1775); Determination of the Notion of a Human Race (1735); Conjectural Beginnin of Human History (1786): three tracts containing some points ofgintcrest as regards the empirical grounds for Kant's doctrine of teleology. Reference will be made to them in the notice of the Kritik of Judgment.
8. On the Volcanoes in the Moon (178 5)? On the I nfiuence of the Moon on the Weather (1794). The second of these contains a remarkable discussion of the relation between the centre of the moon's figure and its centre of gravity. From the difference between these Kant is led to conjecture that the climatic conditions of the side of the moon turned from us must be altogether unlike those of the face presented to us. His views have been restated by Hansen. 9. Lectures on Physical Geography (1822): published from notes of Kant's lectures, with the approval of the author. Consideration of these works is sufficient to show that Kant's mastery of the science of his time was complete and thorough, and that his philosophy is to be dealt with as having throughout a reference to general scientific conceptions. For more detailed treatment of his importance in science, reference may be made to Z6llner's essay on " Kant and his Merits on Natural Science " contained in the work on the Nature of Comets (pp. 426-484); to Dietrich, Kant and Newton; Schultze, Kant and Darwin; Reuschle's careful analysis of the scientific works in the Deutsche Vierteljahrs-Schrift (1868); W. Hastie's introduction to Kant's Cosmogony (1900), which summarizes criticism to that date; and articles in Kant-Studien (1896 foll.).
The notice of the philosophical writings of Kant need not be more than bibliographical, as in the account of his philosophy it wiil be necessary to consider at some length the successive stages in the development of his thought. Arranged chronologically these works are as follows: 1755. Principiorum primorum cognition is metaphysical novae dilucidatio.
1756. Metaphysicae cum geometric junctae usus in philosophic naturali, cujus specimen I . continet monadalogiam physicam. 1762. Die falsclie Spitzjindigkeit der 'vier syllogistischen Figuren, " The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures " (trans. T. K. Abbott, Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken Subtilty of the Figures, 1885).
1763. Versuch den Begrif der negative Grdssen in die Weltweisheit einzufuhren, " Attempt to introduce the Notion of Negative Quantities into Philosophy."
1763. Der einzig mogliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes, " The only possible Foundation for a Demonstration of the Existence of God."
1764. Beabachtungen uber das Gefithl des Schiinen und Erhabenen (Riga, 177, I; Konigsberg, 1776).
1764. Untersuchung uber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der naturlichen Theologie und Moral, " Essay on the Evidence (Clearness) of the Fundamental Propositions of Natural Theology and Ethics." 1766. Traume eines Geistersehers, erlautert durch Trdume der Metaphysik, " Dreams of a Ghost-seer (or Clairvoyant), explained by the Dreams of Metaph sic" (Eng. trans. E. F. Goerwitz, with introd. by F. Sewall, IQOOK
1768. Von dem ersten Grurlde des Unterschied s der Gegenden im Raum, " Foundation for the Distinction of Positidns in Space." The above may all be regarded as belonging to the precritical period of Kant's development. The following introduce the notions and principles characteristic of the critical philosophy. 1770. De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis. 1781. Kritik der reinen Vernunft, " Kritik of Pure Reason " (revised ed. 1787; ed. Vaihinger, 1881 foll. and B. Erdmann, 1900; Eng. trans., F. Max Müller, 1896, 2nd ed. 1907, and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, 1854).
1783. Prolegomena zu einer jeden krinftigen Metaphysik die als Wissenschaft wird auftreten kiinnen, " Prolegomena to all Future Metaphysic which may present itself as Science " (ed. B. Erdmann, 1878; Eng. trans. I. P. Mahaffy and ]. H. Bernard, 2nd ed. 1889; Belfort Bax, 1883 and Paul Carus, 1902; and cf. M. Apel, Kommentar zu Kants Prolegomena, 1908).
1784. Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte im weltbiirgerlicher Absicht, " Notion of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitan Sense." With this may be coupled the review of Herder in 1785. 1785. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, "Foundations of the Metaphysic of Ethics " (see T. K. Abbott, Fundamental Principles of the Jlletaphysic of Ethics, 3rd ed. 1907). 1786. MetaphysischeAnfangsgriinde der Naturwissenschaft, " Metaphysical Elements of Natural Science" (ed. A. Hiifler, 1900; trans. Belfort Bax, Prolegomena and Jlletaphysical Foundations, 1883). 1788. Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der Philosophie, " On the Employment of Teleological Principles in Philosophy."
1788. Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, " Kritik of Practical Reason " (trans. T. K. Abbott, ed. 1898).
1790. Kritik der Urtheilskraft, " Kritik of Judgment " (trans. with notes ]. H. Bernard, 1892).
1790. Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen Vernunft durch eine dltere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll, "On a Discovery by which all the recent Critique of Pure Reason is superseded by a more ancient " (i.e by Leibnitz's philosophy). 1791. Ueber die w irk lichen Fortschritte der Metaphysik seit Leibnitz und Woljf, "On the Real Advances of Metaphysics since Leibnitz and Wolff "; and Ueber das Misslingen aller philosophischen Versuche in der Theodicee.
1793. Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernurw, " Religion within the Bounds of Reason only " (Eng. trans. . Semple, 1838).
1794. Ueber Philosophie uberhaupt, "On Philosophy generally, " and Das Ende aller Dinge.
1795. Zum ewigen Frieden (Eng. trans., M. Campbell Smith, 1903). 1797. Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der Rechtslehre (trans. W Hastie), and Metaphysische Anfangsgrilnde der Tugendlehre. 1798. Der Streit der Facultdten, " Contest of the Faculties." 1798. Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht.