is Ignacz Acsady's History of the Magyar Empire (2 vols., Budapest, 1904). though its author is too often ultra-chauvimstic in tone.
To those who do not read Magyar the following books on the general history of Hungary may be recommended' Armin Vambéry, Hungary in Ancient and Modern Times (London, 1897); R. Chélard, La Hongrze m1llena1re (Paris, 1896); Mor Gelléri, Aus der Vergangenhezt und Gegemuart des tausendjahrzgen Ungarn (Budapest, 1896); Iozsef ]ekelfalussy, The llfhllennzum of Hungary (Budapest, 1897); E Say ous, Hzstozre genérale des Hongrozs (2 vols, Budapest, 1st ed., 1876, 2nd ed, 1b. 1900); janos Maylath, Geschichte der Magyaren (5 vols., 3rd ed, Regensburg, 1852-1853)-somewhat out of date (it first appeared in 1828), but useful for those who like a little more detail; Count ]ul1us Andrassv, The Development of Hungarzan Constztutzonal Lzberty, translated by C. Arthur and Ilona Ginever (London, 1908), containing an interesting comparison with English constitutional develo inent; C M Knatchbull-Hugessen, The Political Ezolutzon of thie Hungarian Natron (2 vols, London, 1908), strongly Magyar in sympathy; R, W. Seton-Watson (Scotus Viator), Ranal Problems zn Hungary (London, 1908), a strong criticism of the Magyar attitude towards the Slav subject races, especially the Slovaks, with documents and a full bibliography.
(c) Constitutional: Anton von Virozsil, Das Staatsrecht des Komgrezchs Ungarn (3 vols, Pest, 1865); S. Rado-Rothfeld, D1e ungarzsche Verfassung (Berlin, 1898) and, based on this, A de Bertha, La Constztutzon Hongrozse (Paris, 1898), both supporting the policy of lIagyar1zat1on, Akos von Timon, Ungarzsche Verfassungs und Rechzsgeschzchte (Berlin, 1904); Knatchbull-Hugessen, op czt
(d) Biographical: In Magyar, the great serial entitled Hungarian Hzstorzcal Bzographzes (Budapest, 1884, &c.), edited by Sandor Szilagyi, is a collection of lives of fainous Hungarian men and womejn from the earliest times by many scholars of' note, finely illustrate
For works on special periods see the separate articles on the soere1gns and other notabilities of Hungary. For works on the Compromise of 1867 and the relations of Austria and Hungary generally, see the bibliography to the article AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
III. Language
The Magyar or Hungarian language belongs to the northern or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) division of the Ural-Altaic family, and forms, along with Ostiak and Vogul, the Ugric branch of that division The affinity existing between the Magyar and the Finnic languages, first noticed by John Amos Comenius (Komensky) in the middle of the 17th century,1 and later by Olav Rudbecl,2 Leibn1tz,3 Strahlenberg,4 Eccard, Sajnovicsf and others, was proved “ grammatically ” by Samuel Gyarmathi in his work entitled A jinitas linguae Hungaricae cum linguis F znnzcae arzgznzs gram mat ice demanstrata (Gottingen, 1799). The Uralian travels of Anthony Reguly (1843-1845), and the philological labours of Paul Hunfalvy and Joseph Budenz, may be said to have established it, and no doubt has been thrown on It by recent research, though most authorities regard the Magyars as of mixed origin physically and combining Turkish with Finno-Ugric elements
Xlthough for nearly a thousand years established 1n Europe and subjected to Aryan influences, the Magyar has yet retained 1ts essential Lral ~lta1c or Turanian features The grammatical forms are expressed, as in Turkish, by means of affixes modulated according te the high or low vowel power of the root or chief syllables of the word to which they are appended-the former being represented by e, o, 5, u, ll, the latter by a, a, o, 6, u, 12; the sounds é, 1, i are regarded as neutral. In some respects the value of the consonants varies from that usual in the Latin alphabet. S is pronounced as sh in English, the sound of simple s being represented bv sz. C or cz 15 pronounced as English tr, cs as English ch; ds as English j; zs as French 7, g as dy. Among the striking peculiarities of the language are the definlte and indefinite forms of the active verb, e g lzitom, see' (definite, viz “ h1m, " “ her, " “the man, " &c.), lzitok, “ I see " ( dcfin1te); the insertion of the causative, frequentatne, dm '1t e and potential syllables after the root of the verb, e g ver, “ he beats", veret, “ he causes to beat ”; vereget, “ he beats repeatedly"; verzrzt, “ he beats a little ”; verhet, “ he can beat "; the mode of epressing possession by the tenses of the irregular verb lennt, “ to bc " (viz van, “ IS ", vannak, “ are "; volt, “ was", lesz,
1 See Hunfalvy 's “ Die ungarisGI;Sprachwissenscliaft, " Liter; rzsche Beruhte aus Ungarn, pp 80-87 (Budapest, 1877).
2 Speczmen usus lmguae Gothzcae m eruendzs atque zllustrandzs obscurzsszmzs qurbusdam Sacrae Scrzpturae loczs; addzta analogza ltnguae Golhttae cum Szruca, necnan Fmmcae cum Ungarzca (Upsala,
3 llunfalyy, p 81
4 Id. pp. 82-86.
5 Demonstraho Idzorna Ungarorum et Lapponum zdem esse (Copenhagen und Ty rnau, 1770)
“will be," &c), with the object and its possessive aiiixes, e.g nekem vannak konyvezm, literally, “to me are books-my"=“I have books ”; nekz volt konyve, “to him was book—h1s"=“ he had a book." Other characteristic features are the use of the singular substantive after numerals, and adjectives of quantity, e g. két ember, literally, “ two man "; sok szé, “ many word, " &c.; the position of the Christian name and title after the family name, e.g. Olmosy Karoly taruir ur, “ Mr Professor Charles Olmosy "; and the possessive forms of the nouns, which are varied according to the number and person of the possessor and the number of the object in the following way: tollarn, “my pen ”; tollazrn, “my pens "; tollad, “thy pen ”; tollazd, “ thy pens "; tollunk, “ our pen ”; tollaznk, “our pens, " &c There is no gender, not even a distinction between “ he, ” “ she, ” and “ it, " in the personal pronouns, and the declension is less developed than in Finnish. But there is a wealth of verbal derivatives, the vocabulary is copious, and the intonation harmonious. Logical in its derivatives and in its grammatical structure, the Magyar lan uage is, moreover, copious in idiomatic expressions, rich in its store of words, and almost musical in its harmonious intonation. It is, therefore, admirably adapted for both literary and rhetorical purposes.
The first Hungarian grammar known is the Grammatzca Hungaro-Latzna of John Erdosi alzas Sylvester Pannonius, printed at Sarvar-Ujsziget in 1539. Others are the posthumous treatises of Nicholas Révai (Pest, 1809); the Magyar nyelvmester of Samuel Gyarmathi, published at Klausenburg in 1794; and grammars by ] Farkas (9th ed., Vienna, 1816), Mailath (2nd ed., Pest, 1832), Kis (Vienna, 1834), Marton (8th ed., Vienna, 1836), Maurice Ballagi or (in German) Bloch (5th ed., Pest, 1869), Topler (Pest, 1854), Riedl (Vienna, 1858), Schuster (Pest, 1866), Charles Ballagi (Pest, 1868), Reméle (Pest and Vienna, 1869), Roder (Budapest, 1875), Fuhrer (Budapest, 1878), Ney (20th ed., Budapest, 1879), C. E. de Ujfalvy (Paris, 1876), S. Wékey (London, 1852), ]. Csink (London, 1853), Ballantik (Budapest, 1881); Singer (London, 1882).
The earliest lexicon is that of Gabriel (Mizsér) Pesti alzas Pestinus Pannonius, Nomenclatura sex lznguarum, Latznae, Italzcae, Gallzcae, Bohemzcae, Ungarzcae et Germanzcae (Vienna, 1538), which was several times reprinted. The Vorabula Hungarzca of Bernardino Baldi (1583), the original MS of wluch is in the Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples, contains 2899 Hungarian words with renderings in Latin or Italian.” In the Dzctzonarzum undeczm lznguarum of Calepinus (Basel, 1590) are found also Polish, Hungarian and English words and phrases. This work continued to be reissued until 1682 The Lexzcon Latina-Hungarzcum of Albert Molnar first appeared at Nuremberg in 1604, and with the addition of Greek was reprinted till 1708. Of modern Hungarian dictionaries the best is that of the Academy of Sciences, containing 110,784 articles in 6 vols., by Czuczor and Fogarasi (Pest, 1862-1874). The next best native dictionary is that of Maurice Ballagi, A Magyar n elv tehes szotdra, (Pest, 1868-1873). In addition to the above may bye mentioned the work of Kresznerics, where the words are arranged according to the roots (Buda, 1831-1832); the Etymologzsches Worterbuch aus chzneszschen Wurzeln, of Podhorszky (Par1s, 1877); Lexzcon lznguae Hungarzcae aevz antzquzorzs, by Szarvas Gabor and Simonyi Zsigmond (1889); and “ Magyar-Ugor osszehasonlito szotar “ Hungarzan Ugrzan Comparative Dzctzonary, by Bydenz (Budapest, 1872-1879). Othe1 and more general d1r't1onar1es for German scholars are those of l/Iarton, Lexzcon trzlzngue Latzno-Hungarzco-Germamcum (Vienna, 1818-1823), A F Richter (Vienna, 1836), E Farkas (Pest, 1848-1851), Fogarasi (4th ed .Pest, 1860), Loos (Pest, 1869) and M Ballagi (Budapest, 3rd ed, 1872-1874) There are, moreover, Hungarian-French d1ct1onar1es by Kiss and Karady (Pest and Leipzig, 1844-1848) and Babos and Molé (Pest, 1865), and English-Hungarian dictionaries by Dallos (Pest, 1860) and Bizonfy (Budapest, 1886).
(C. El.)
IV. Literature
The Catholic ecclesiastics who settled in Hungary during the 11th century, and who found their way into the chief offices of the state, were mainly instrumental in establishing Latin as the predominant language of the court, the higher schools and public worship, and of eventually introducing it into the administration. Having thus become the tongue of the educated and privileged classes, Latin continued to monopolize the chief fields of literature until the revival of the native language at the close of the 18th century.
Amongst the earliest Latin works that claim attention are the “ Chronicle " (Gesta Hungarorum), by; the “ anonymous notary " of King Béla, probably Béla II (see Pod radczkyf' Bela kzrcily nevtelen jegyzoje, Buda, 1861, p. 48), which describes the early ages of
6 See Count Géza Kuun's “ Lettere Ungheresi, " La Rwzsla Europea, anno vi., vol 11 fasc. 3, pp. 561-562 (Florence, 1875).
7 So also jambor (A Magyar Irod. Tart., Pest, 1864, p. 104). Kornyei, Imre and others incline to the belief that it was Béla I. and that consequently the “ anonymous notary " belongs rather to
the 11th than to the 12th century.