invasion and conquest was the simultaneous Catholic reaction
in Hungary. The movement may be said to have begun about 1601, when the great Jesuit preacher and eact, , m controversiahst, Peter Pazmany (qv), first devoted himself to the task of reconverting his countrymen Progress was necessarily retarded by the influence of the independent Protestant princes of Transylvania in the northern counties of Hungary. Even as late as 1622 the Protestants at the diet of Pressburg were strong enough to elect their candidate, Szamszlo Thurzo, palatine. But Thurzo was the last Protestant palatine, and, on his death, the Catholics, at the diet of Sopron (1625), where they dominated the Upper Chamber, and had a large minority in the Lower, were able to elect Count Miklos Esterhazy in Thurz6's stead. The Jesuit programme in Hungary was the same as it had been in Poland a generation earlier, and may be summed up thus: convert the great famihes and all the rest will follow.1 Their success, due partly to their whole-hearted zeal, and partly to their superior educational Pézménys system, was extraordinary, and they possessed the Wm k additional advantage of having in Pazmany a leader of commanding genius During his primacy (1616-1637), when he had the whole influence of the court, and the sympathy and the assistance of the Catholic world behind him, he put the finishing touches to his life's labour by founding a great Catholic university at Nagyszombat (1635), and publishing a Hungarian translation of the Bible to counteract the influence of Gaspar Karol1's widely spread Protestant version. Pazmany was certainly the great civilizing factor of Hungary in the seventeenth century, and indirectly he did as much for the native language as for the native church. His successors had only to build on his foundations. One most striking instance of how completely he changed the current of the national mind may here be given From 1 526 to 1625 the usual jubilee pilgrimages from Hungary to Rome had entirely ceased. During his primacy they were revived, and in 1650, only seventeen years after his death, they were as numerous as ever they had been Five years later there remained but four noble Protestant families in royal Hungary. The Catholicization of the land was complete.
Lnfortunately the court of Vienna was not content with winning back the Magyars to the Church. The Habsburg kings Habsburg were as Jealous of the political as of the religious ep, essmn liberties of their Hungarian subjects. This was partly owing to the fact that national aspirations of any sort were contrary to the imperial system, which claimed to rule by right divine, and partly to an inveterate distrust of the Mag5ars, w ho were regarded at court as rebels by nature, and therefore as enemies far more troublesome than the Turks The conduct of the Hungarian nobles in the past, indeed, somewhat justified this estimate, for the fall of the ancient monarchy w as cntirely due to their persistent disregard of authority, to their refusal to bear their share of the public burdens. They were now to sutfer sexerely for their past misdoings, but unfortunate the innocent nation was forced to suffer with them. I throughout the latter part of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century the Hungarian gentry underwent a cruel discipline were were were at the hands of their Habsburg kings Their privileges overridden. their petitions were disregarded, their diets degraded into mere registries of the royal decrees They ne er fa1rl represented in the royal council, they were excluded as far as possible from commands in Hungarian regiments, were treated generally, as the members of an inferior guilty ran lhis era of repression corres onds rou hl and and p g y with tht reign of Leopold I. (I6§ 7-1705), wl1o left the government Szele- of the tountry to two bigoted Magyar prelates, Gyorgy pesenyi (1595-1685) and Lipét (Leopold) Kollonich (1631-1707), whose domination represents the high-water mark of the anti national regimen. The stupid and abortive conspiracy of Peter Zrinyi and three other magnates, who were publicly executed (lrpril 30, 1671), w as followed by wholesale arrests and confisca-
1 The jobbagvuk, or under-tenants, had to follow the example of their lords they were by this time, mere scrfs with no privileges either political or religious
tions, and for a time the legal government of Hungary was superseded (Patent of March 3, 1673) by a committee of eight persons, four Magyars and four Germans, presided over by a German governor, but the most influential person in this committee was Bishop Kollonich, of whom it was said that, while Pazmany hated the heretic in the Magyar, Kollonich hated the Magyar in the heretic. A gigantic process against leading Protestant ministers for alleged conspiracy, y was the first act of this committee. It began at Pressburg in March 1674, when 236 of the ministers were “ converted ” or confessed to acts of rebellion. But the remaining Q3 stood firm and were condemned to death, a punishment commuted to slavery in the Neapolitan galleys. Sweden, as one of the guarantors of the peace of Westphalia, and several north German states, protested against the injury thus done to their coreligionists. It was replied that Hungary was outside the operation of the treaty of Westphaha, and that the Protestants had been condemned not ex odzo relzgzoms but crzmme rebellzonis.
But a high-spirited nation cannot be extinguished by any number of patents and persecutions. So long as the Magyar people had any life left, it was bound to fight in self-defence, it was bound to produce “ malcontents ” iieggfzfffeé who looked abroad for help to the enemies of the house of Habsburg. The first and most famous of the malcontent leaders was Count Imre Tokeli (q.v.). Between 1678 and 1682 Tokoli waged thrce wars with Leopold, and, in September 1682, was acknowledged both by the emperor and the sultan as prince of North Hungary as far as the river Garam, to the great relief of the Magyar Protestants The success of Tokoli rekindled the martial ardour of the Turks, and a war party, under the grand vizier Kara Mustafa, determined to wrest from Leopold his twelve remaining Hungarian counties, gained the ascendancy at Constantinople in the course of 1682. Leopold, intent on the doings of his perennial rival Louis XIV., was 10th to engage in an eastern war even for the liberation of Hungary, which he regarded as of far less importance than a strip or two of German territory on the Rhine. But, stimulated by the representations of Pope Innocent XI, who, well aware of the internal weakness of the Turk, was bent upon forming a Holy League to drive them out of Europe, and alarmed, besides, by the danger of Vienna and the hereditary states, Leopold reluctantly contracted an alliance with John III. of Poland, and gave the command of the army which, mainly through the efforts of the pope he had been able to assemble, to Prince Charles of Lorraine. The war, which lasted for 16 years and put an end to the Turkish dominion in Hungary, began with the world renowned siege of Vienna (July 14-Sept. 12, 1683). There is no need to recount the oft-told victories of Sobieski (see JOHN III. SOBIESKI, KING or POLAND). What is not quite so generally known is the fact that Leopold slackened at once and would have been quite content with the results of these earlier victories had not the pope stiffened his resistance by forming a Holy League between the Emperor, Poland, Venice, Muscovy and the papacy, with the avowed object of dealing the Turk the coup de grtiee (March 5, 1684). This statesmanlike persistence was rewarded by an uninterrupted series of triumphs, culminating in the recapture of Buda (1686) and Belgrade (1688), and the recovery of Bosnia (1680). But, in IOQO, the third of the famous Kuprihs, Mustafa, brother of Fazil Ahmed, became grand vlzier, and the Turk, still further encouraged by of Innocent XI., rallied once more. In the course of that year li on the the death kuprih regained Servia and Bulgaria, placed Toko throne of Transylvania, and on the 6th of October took Belgrade by assault. Once more the ioad to Vienna lay open, but the grand vizier wasted the remainder of the year in fortifying Belgrade, and on August 18th, IOQI, he was defeated and slain at Slankamen by the margrave of Baden. For the next six years the war languished owing to the timidity of the emperor, the incompetence of his generals and the exhaustion of the Porte, but on the 11th of September 1697 Prince Eugene of Savoy routed the Turks at Zenta and on the 1 9th of Nox ember 1698 a peace-congress was opened at Liberation from the Turks.